Ecosystems: Ecological Succession and Climatic Climax

Ecosystems: Change and Challenge The Structure of Ecosystems Ecosystem: a dynamic, stable system characterised by the interaction of plants and animals with each other and with the non-living components of the environment The components of an ecosystem are categorised as either biotic and abiotic Biotic means the living environment, components include: i). Vegetation (living and decomposing) ii).Mammals, insects, birds and microorganisms Biomass-the mass of material in the bodies of animals and plants (total mass of living matter) Abiotic means the non-living, chemical and physical components of the ecosystem and includes: i). Climate- in particular the seasonal pattern of temperature and precipitation ii). Soil characteristics iii). Underlying parent rock iv). Relief of the land v). Drainage characteristicsEcosystems are open systems because energy and living matter can both enter and leave the system: * Inputs-Energy from the sun, which drives photosynthesis-enabling the plants to grow, water transported into the ecosystem from precipitation and animals that arrive from elsewhere * Outputs-nutrients are transferred out of the system by: animals can physically move out, water can leave through evapotranspiration, groundwater flow and throughflow * Flows-nutrients can be transferred from one store to another e. g. apillary uptake * Stores- stores of nutrients: vegetation, plant litter and soils Energy Flows and nutrient cycling Energy flows- is the flow of energy through a food chain * Energy flows flow through an ecosystem from one stage to another. * Through photosynthesis plants are able to capture light energy from the sun to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water to grow and increase their biomass * Within all ecosystems, nutrients are required for plant growth and are recycled from one store to another e. g. leaves fall from tree-> when they decompose nutrients are returned to the soilGersmehl diagram- shows the cycling of nutrients within the m ain stores of biome * Circles of proportionate size represent the stores of nutrients with the biomass, litter and soil * Nutrient transfers, inputs and outputs are represented by arrows of varying thickness Inputs- include nutrients(carbon and nitrogen) and minerals(from weathered parent rock) Outputs-loss of nutrients from the soil by; leaching and surface runoff Flows-leaf fall from biomass to litter, decomposition of litter, flow of nutrients to soil, uptake of nutrients by plants and treesThe movement of energy up the trophic levels shows the food chain as each trophic level occupies a different position. However food chains, in reality, are often more complicated than this. Some species can occupy more than one position in every food web – may be prey to more than one animal etc. Nutrient cycles in an ecosystem take place between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. This can be shown through the Gersmehl diagram. * Nutrients have three stores – the soil, litter and biomass. Nutrients are transferred through the three stores through fall of dead tissue, absorption through plant roots and decomposition etc. Inputs of nutrients include precipitation and the weathering of parent rock Outputs include loss from runoff and leaching Flows include leaf fall (from the biomass to the litter), decomposition of litter(flow of nutrients to the soil) Trophic levels, food chains and webs Energy transfer within an ecosystem, represented by a pyramid diagram * At each trophic level, some energy is available as food for the next level * Each level decreases in size, 90% of energy lost through life rocesses-respiration, movement and excretion * Only 10% available as food, number of living organisms decreases as trophic levels increase Producers/autotrophs- first layer, produce their own food through photosynthesis(green plants) Primary consumers-eat the producers(herbivores) Secondary consumers-consume the herbivores(carnivores) Tertiary consume rs-top predators that eat secondary consumers Detrivores and decomposers operate at each trophic level: i). Detrivore-feeds on dead material or waste products ii).Decomposer-an organism that breaks down dead plants, animals and waste matter e. g. fungi and bacteria * There are normally 4 links in a food chain, each link feeds on and obtains energy from the previous link and is consumed by and provides energy for the proceeding link * There are a large number of food chains that operate in ecosystems, it is also made even more complicated as animals have varied diets, this can be shown in a food web Ecosystems in the British Isles Over Time Succession and Climax Succession-a series of changes that take place in the plant community over timeClimatic climax-the final stage of the plant succession, where the vegetation is in balance with the environmental conditions. Providing the environmental conditions remain unchanged there will be no change in the vegetation once the stage is reach ed * If allowed to continue undisturbed , the succession will reach its climatic climax- where the plant species live in perfect balance with the current environmental conditions * Climate is the major influence of vegetation on a global scale * On a local scale-drainage, geology and relief affect plant growthThere are two basic types of succession: 1. Primary succession-occurs on surfaces that have had no previous vegetation There are two main types of primary succession: * Xeroseres are formed on dry land, this group can be divided into lithoseres on bare rock and psammoseres on sand dunes * Hydroseres are formed in water, haloseres in salt water and hydroseres in fresh water 2. Secondary succession occurs on land that was formerly vegetated but has undergone a loss of vegetation E. g. Deforestation Development of a successionAs the succession develops it passes through a series of stages called seres(individual stages in the plant succession) where the processes of invasion, colo nisation, competition, domination and decline operate to influence the composition of the vegetation i). Plants first invade bare ground through the processes of dispersal and migration ii). Pioneer species are adapted to surviving harsh conditions (e. g. long-rooted salt-tolerant marram grass), they compete for available space, light, water and nutrients, when they die they help modify the environment by adding organic matter iii).The addition of organic matter to the developing soil improves its structure and water retention qualities iv). A period of relative stability is eventually reached where the vegetation has reached its climax, the climax is dominated by the tallest species v). The saturation point has been reached with all potential niches occupied- climatic climax community, where the natural vegetation has reached a stable balance with the climate and soils of the area Polyclimax theory- the theory that local factors (drainage, geology, relief and microclimates) can cre ate variations in the climatic climax communityPlagioclimax- the plant community that exists when human interference prevents the climatic climax being reached Lithosere Is a succession that begins life on newly exposed rock surface e. g. eruption of a volcano i). The bare rock is initially colonised by bacteria and algae ii). The pioneers begin to colonise, starting with lichens, they begin to break down the rock and assist water retention iii). As water retention improves, mosses begin to grow, water retention improves and weathering to produce the beginning of a soil where advanced plants can grow iv).Ferns, herbs and flowering plants appear and die back, bacteria converts their remains into humus, helps to recycle nutrients and improve soil fertility v). Shrubs start to grow vi). Pioneer trees become established, normally fast growing e. g. willow, birch vii). Slower growing tree species begin to develop (e. g. ash and oak), they are the dominants of the climatic climax communit y- termperate deciduous woodland Hydrosere A hydrosere develops as follows: i). In a freshwater environment, submerged aquatics are the first plants to develop, they help to trap sediment which enables other species to move in i). The next seral stage is the growth of reed beds and swamp conditions iii). Colonisation by alder and fern begins, they further modify the environmental conditions, improving drainage and mineral content of the immature soil, allowing the entry of willow and ash iv). The climatic climax vegetation of deciduous oak or beech woodland is reached, throughout the succession there are progressive changes to the soil conditions, ground-level microclimate and animal activity Temperate Deciduous WoodlandA biome is a global-scale ecosystem and is a naturally occurring organic community of plants and animals in the climatic climax stage of succession * Tropical rainforests and temperate deciduous woodland are both examples of high energy biomes * Low energy biomes are the tundra in the high latitudes and the hot deserts in the low latitudes, the vegetation is scarce and net primary productivity is low * Temperate deciduous woodland is a high energy biome which has a relatively high productivity. It is found in id latitudes on the borders of continents where there is adequate moisture. Climate: * Temperature ranges from 5 – 17 in Winter and Summer * 500-2,000mm of rain per year, varies seasonally * Low pressure systems * Westerly winds Vegetation: * Broadleaved deciduous trees are the dominant species, oak are the tallest * Trees develop large crowns and broad but thin leaves * Shed their leaves in the winter, reduces transpiration when less water is available * Net primary production-1,200g dry organic matter per M? er year * Most woodlands show some stratification * Below the canopy is the shrub layer * Just above the forest floor is the herb layer * Epiphytes e. g. lichens and mosses grow on the trunks and branches of trees * A thick la yer of leaf litter is readily broken down by soil microbes and animals Soil: * Brown Earth soil 1. 5m deep * Leaf litter makes the soil more fertile in Autumn * Well mixed with decomposers so it becomes fertile quickly * Leaching occurs when there is snowmelt or intense rain, which is not uncommon Arresting factorsPlant successions can be stopped from reaching climatic climax or deflected to a different climax, by human interference The resulting vegetation is called a plagioclimax, this can be caused by: * deforestation or afforestation * animal grazing or trampling * fire clearance A secondary succession is one that develops on land that has previously been vegetated The stages of secondary succession may be more rapid than those of primary succession because organic matter is already present in the soil, the pioneer stage may be short or absent- climatic climax is reached in a much shorter timePlagioclimax: heather moorland 1. As the soils deteriorated without the deciduous veget ation, hardy plants such as heather come to dominate the uplands. 2. Sheep grazing became the major form of agriculture and the sheep prevented the regeneration of climax woodland by destroying young saplings 3. Many of these uplands have been controlled by managed burning to encourage new heather shoots 4. Burning has eliminated the less fire-resistant species, leading to the dominance of heather 5.One of the aims of burning heather is to ensure as much as possible of the available nutrient is conserved in the ecosystem 6. Burnt on average every 15 years, If the time elapses more then there is too much woody tissue and nutrients are lost in smoke Tropical biomes In a tropical rainforest biome due to the constant high temperature and rainfall, vegetation grows more quickly, large amounts of net primary production Biodiversity- the variety of species within an ecosystem Leaching-soluble bases are removed from a soil by downward-percolating water in environments where precipitation ex ceeds evaporationNet primary production-the amount of energy fixed in photosynthesis minus the energy lost by respiration in plants The tropical equatorial rainforest biome The tropical rainforest biomes are between latitudes 10Â °N and 10Â °S of the equator Climate * The equatorial climate has little variation, temperatures remain high throughout the year * High diurnal temperature range, high during day and low during the night- due to no insulating clouds to keep the heat in * Annual precipitation is high, often in excess of 2000mm, rain falls all ear round at the equator because of the inter-tropical convergence zone dominates the atmospheric conditions Evapotranspiration is rapid, due to sun heats the humid forest * low pressure conditions allow air to be rapidly uplifted * As the air rises it cools and water vapour condenses into clouds, the clouds continue to build into the afternoon- leading to heavy rain and thunder, returning the previously uplifted moisture back to grou nd levelHumidity is high throughout the year, continuous evapotranspiration adds water vapour to the air On the forest floor there is little breeze as the trade winds converge here Soils Underlying soil will have developed naturally over a long period of time and be in balance with its environment, this is known as zonal soil The zonal soil associated with the tropical rainforest is a latosolyh Characteristic features * A latosol can be more than 40m deep The constant hot wet climate provides perfect conditions for chemical weathering of the bedrock * Ferrallitisation is the process where bedrock is broken down by chemical weathering into clay minerals and sesquioxides * Red colour due to the presence of iron and aluminium minerals * As there is a moisture surplus in the equatorial climate(rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration), there is a downward movement of water through the soil * Silica materials are washed out of the A horizon and transported downwards by water by a process call ed leaching * Iron and aluminium compounds are less soluble and are left behind * The latosol is nutrient poor, plant uptake of nutrients is roughly equal to the input from decomposed litter * Soil moisture utilisation occurs throughout this period, as evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation Vegetation Rainforests are the most diverse and productive biome, also the most fragile The vegetation is in harmony with its environment and is a climatic climax community where the dominant species are the hardwood trees * The net primary production of the rainforest is 2,200g M? yr the figure is high because the growing season lasts all year and the litter is rapidly decomposed, replacing nutrients taken up by the vegetation * There can be up to 300 species of trees in every Km? * The forest has a layered appearance, with the tallest trees(emergent's), standing up to 45m, above the canopy, the canopy absorbs most of the sunlight and intercepts most of the precipitation * When a tre e dies it brings down others as it falls, new trees grow quickly taking advantage of the light, it decomposes quickly assisted by detrivores and the hot and humid conditions * Fungi that grows on trees and has an important role in decomposing litterThe vegetation has developed and adapted to physical conditions of the rainforest: * The trees grow rapidly, the leaves at the tops of the trees absorb light and photosynthesise, the bark is thin as the trees don't need protection from harsh winter conditions * The top layer of soil contains the minerals the trees need, there is also an abundant supply of water, roots do not need to be deep e. g. buttress roots, also help to stabilise the trees * The leaves have adapted to the regular heavy rainfall by developing drip-trips, which allows excess water to be easily shed, the leaves are also thick and leathery to withstand strong sunlight and reduces the loss of water from the plant * Epiphytes grow on the trees, as the forest floor is dark * Rainforests form the habitat for a huge number of species The effects of human activity on plant succession Deforestation is the deliberate clearance of woodland by cutting, burning or the application of a defoliant * Climatic climax vegetation has been destroyed, this has resulted in both secondary succession and plagioclimax * The vegetation that replaces the original rainforest tends to be smaller in height and less diverse, with a reduction in the general biomass Causes of deforestation * Demand for hardwood, e. g. teak, its demand for building and furniture is increasing * Many developing countries rely on export earnings from timber to help pay their debts and finance major development projects * To provide land for rubber plantations, cattle ranches for beef farming, soya plantations, mining, roads and railways * Population pressure has also led to an increase in the clearance of rainforests Impacts of deforestation * As habitats shrink, plant species become endangered and the food chain within the forest is disrupted * Some animal species are threatened by extinction The vegetation protects the latosol soils from the regular heavy tropical downpours * Once the trees are removed the topsoil is open to erosion and to leaching of nutrients and minerals * Runoff causes sediment to block river channels and increases flooding * The microclimate of the forest is disturbed by deforestation-the daily water cycle of rapid evapotranspiration followed by afternoon precipitation cannot occur, there is less cloud cover and a greater temperature range * The use of burning leads to local air pollution and contributes to climate change7 * Economic benefits in terms of income from mining, farming and exports from hardwood * Culture of the indigenous people is destroyed and they may be forced to move from their land People are one of the arresting factors that interfere with plants succession. They can often stop a plant succession from growing and then when this is ma intained it is known as a plagioclimax. Sheep grazing on moorland is an example. A secondary succession is a plant succession that takes place on land that has already been colonised.Secondary succession can follow a natural disaster such as a volcanic eruption or a period of human intervention such as colonising a former quarry site. Much of the British Isles was covered in deciduous woodland with the climax species being either Oak or Ash depending on the soil and the underlying parent rock. This was largely cleared for agriculture and settlement which has started a plagioclimax in most areas of Britain. Tropical Biome – Savannah Grassland Climate: * Wet and dry seasons * 500-1000mm of rain per year * Hot throughout the year * High pressure and strong trade winds in the dry season * Wet season dominated by the ITCZ * Fires may occur caused by heat and lightning Vegetation: Trees dominate over grasses where the wet season is longer – dense rainforest towards the equat or * Grasses may be up to 2m tall – long roots * Deciduous * Adaptations include fire resistant bark, water storage etc. Soil: * Deep red lateric soils * Influenced by climate * Silica is leached downwards in the wet season * Crust formed in the dry season Biodiversity: * Greater towards the equator * Acacia, Baobab, Umbrella Thorn, Elephant Grass * Great animal migrations occur meaning that biodiversity drops at certain times * 40% of the land in Tanzania has been designated as a National Park to help conserve biodiversity * African Elephant, Black Rhino, Zebra and Cheetah are endangered The Savanna grassland biome ClimateThe tropical wet and dry climate of Africa shows seasonal variation in wind direction, precipitation and temperature Variations occur with increasing latitude from the equator Precipitation varies: * Equatorial rainforest margins more than 1,000mm per year, rain season lasts 10-11months * Desert/semi-arid margins are less than 500mm per year, away from the equator the reliability of the rainfall decreases, only 1-2 months rainy season Temperature varies: * The equatorial rainforest margin temperature range is 22Â °C in the wet season and 28Â °C in the dry season * On the desert margins the temperature range from 18Â °C in the wet season to 34Â °C in the dry seasonDuring the dry season, the subtropical anticyclone moves over the desert margins, the subsiding air of the high pressure suppresses convection, giving rise to clear skies and high daytime temperatures The trade winds blow from the high pressure towards the ITCZ, moves towards the coast. The air has a low moisture content, known as harmatten In the wet season, the ITCZ migrates polewards, it brings rainfall because uplift and convection are fed by moist, unstable, tropical maritime air, the poles have a short rainy season so have low annual rainfall Ecological responses soil moisture budgets e. g. Northern Ghana Soil moisture recharge-July to early August precipitation bec omes greater than evapotranspiration, rainwater fills the empty pores in the soil, reaches field capacitySoil moisture surplus- August-September, at field capacity, soil is saturated, rainwater has difficulty infiltrating ground leads to surface runoff, leads to high river levels Soil moisture utilisation-October, evapotranspiration begins to exceed precipitation, more water evaporating and being transpired by plants than falling as rain Soil moisture deficit- December, when soil moisture is used up, water deficit, plants can only survive if drought resistant, period continues until precipitation becomes greater than evapotranspiration Northern Ghana characteristics: * lengthy period of moisture deficit * Short period of moisture surplus * Total annual potential evapotranspiration greater than total potential precipitationAdaptations by vegetation * Vegetation in wetter areas consist of tall coarse grasses, with many deciduous trees- Tree savanna * Shorter tussock grass becomes domi nant in desert margins, accompanied by drought-resistant trees e. g. acacia and baobab, known as grassland and shrub savannas * Trees are deciduous, have hard leathery leaves to reduce transpiration losses, other plants are microphyllous (small leaves) for the same reason * In the tree savanna, isolated trees have low umbrella shaped crowns that shade root areas and reduce soil moisture evaporation Xerophytic characteristics, adaptations to dry surroundings: * dense cell fluids hard waxy leaves Reduce water loss * thorns and protected stomata Two main types of trees: i). Acacia-has a crown structure, often flattened by trade winds, loses leaves in the dry season ii). Baobab-thick spongy trunk, long tap roots, baobab is pyrophytic, withstand fire due to insulating bark Grassland savanna- grasses are tussocky, enables them to retain some moisture shrub or scrub savanna- there are many acacia trees, thorn bushes and short tufted grasses, fewer leaves so retain more water, turn blades a way from sun to reduce water loss Impact of human activity Two main effects on the vegetation: i).Grass is burnt off, better growth of young grass next season for grazing, regular burning makes it difficult for young trees and bushes to become established, dominated by herbaceous plants and indigenous woody plants that can survive fire e. g. acacia and baobab ii). Woody plants, killed by cattle eating their foliage, thorny animal-repellent trees and shrubs such as acacia, therefore become numerous The tropical monsoon forest biome Climate * High temperatures throughout the year, small annual range(19Â °C-30Â °C) because of the location within the tropics * Annual precipitation is high * Winds blow in from the ocean with very moist air and heavy rainfall during May-October, the rest of the year the air is drierEcological responses Soil moisture budgets * Precipitation is much higher than potential evapotranspiration during the wet season * High rainfall totals result in saturation of the soil, some of the moisture can be utilised by vegetation * A soil moisture deficits occurs by January, deciduous trees lose their leaves in response to drought conditions * The period of moisture deficit is shorter then that experienced in the tropical savanna biome * The months of surplus during the wet monsoon season result in the leaching of bases and silica and very little humus is allowed to develop in the top layers Adaptations by vegetation and animals The canopy is not continuous, tallest trees are smaller, provide an incomplete cover * This means there is less competition for light, allowing greater development of vegetation at lower levels * Fewer species of trees, common species are sal, pyinkado and teak all of which are economically valuable * Trees do not possess buttress roots and they develop large round crowns * The bark is often thick, to protect them from the harsh climate of the dry season, leaves are thin * Deciduous trees shed their leaves in response to a lack of moisture, to reduce transpiration during the dry season, this allows the light to reach the forest floor, leads to the development of dense undergrowth Impact of human activity * Tropical monsoon forests are fragile ecosystems, following deforestation almost impossible for existing food webs to continue, all rophic levels are affected, results in massive decrease in natural vegetation * Removal of monsoon forests due to increasing population pressure * Deforestation due to agricultural land and fuel wood due to rapidly increasing population * Teak has been exploited for export to developed countries, many indigenous species are endangered Development issues in the three biomes Brazil has the greatest species diversity, a smaller proportion of its land is protected than in Tanzania, in Tanzania 39. 6% of the land is designated National Parkland Species diversity is of crucial importance because: * Plants photosynthesise * Trees act as a carbon sink * Some species purify wa ter, fixing nitrogen, recycling nutrients and waste * Insects pollinate cropsIn all three biomes the natural environments are threatened by population growth and economic development Ecosystem issues on a local scale Conservation-preservation of the natural environment Ecology-the study of the relationships between living things and their environment Sustainable development-The management of resources in such a way that the ability of the system to replace itself is greater than the level of exploitation In urban areas they contain a wide variety of habitats e. g. industrial sites, derelict land and parks- thus difficult to make generalisations about urban ecology- all these habitats contain different mixes of flora and faunaThis means there are opportunities for secondary succession, particularly where land becomes derelict. Urban niches Many urban habitats are specialised, within one site a number of different niches or microhabitats might be available for plants and animals to co lonise. e. g. bare tarmac, stone walls, Mosses taking root on high buildings Colonisation of wasteland Plant succession-the change on a community of species over time, is brought about by changes in the microenvironment due to e. g. supply of new species, competition between species and changes in habitat The types of plants that can initially colonise are influenced by: i). Slope- horizontal surfaces debris accumulates, eventually develops into soil ii).Moisture availability-gentle slopes, rainwater accumulates and steep slopes-faster runoffs iii). Aspect-south facing slopes are warmer and drier iv). Porosity-(ability to hold water), the greater porosity the quicker the colonisation v). Surface roughness-allowing plants to get a hold vi). Pollution levels-substances that are toxic to plants e. g. lead, contaminates the ground Succession-e. g. Industrial site Stage 1: Pioneers- * Mosses and lichens are the first plants to develop on bare surfaces * Able to exist in areas with little water, obtaining nutrients through photosynthesis * When the plants die they provide a thin mat of organic matter, produces a protosoil that other species can root into Stage 2: Oxford ragwort- Cracks in the surface provide sheltered places for seeds to germinate and retain moisture * Oxford ragwort, wind-blown seeds, has a long flowering season 180-190 days, enables it to produce millions of seeds * At this stage, succession is usually rapid Stage 3: Tall herbs- * As these plants die they produce a thicker and more nutrient-rich soil * Taller plants that are more demanding of good growth conditions can become established e. g. Willowherb Stage 4: Grassland- * As soil enrichment continues, the amount of grass in the vegetation increases * Japanese knotweed, grow up to 3m in height, their dense canopies shade out most species beneath them Stage 5: Scrub woodland- Processes of soil enrichment and competition continues, taller herbaceous plants replaced by shrubs and eventually trees * As herbaceous plants thicken it becomes difficult for these small-seeded plants to establish As plant succession develops, there are changes to the fauna: * Soil fauna-increase in number of earthworms as soil improves and increase in the number and diversity of the insect population * Sub-stratum variations-caused by differences in the nature of the surface being colonised Ecologies along route ways * Routeways are distinctive habitats because exotic species of plants and insects may be brought in by traffic, provide wildlife corridors for e. g. oxes * Railway lines- during days of steam trains there were frequent fires which burnt of tall species (allowing light through) encouraging light-demanding species to establish * Windborne seeds can be sucked along by trains and a lack of human interference encourages wildlife e. g. badgers * The nitrogen-rich exhaust fumes boost the growth of some wild flowers and increase the presence of insects and animals further up the food chain * C anals act like long ponds providing a habitat for a variety of aquatic plants e. g. ducks Introduction of new species Cities are centres for the establishment and spread of foreign species, species: * Europe-e. g. Sycamore * Japan-e. g. Japanese KnotweedSuch species can be introduced by windblown seeds, seeds carriers by animals and forms of transport e. g. trains Urban areas are attractive because of the variety of habitats, the constant creation of new habitats and the reduced level of competition Gardens and parks Are areas where the vegetation is managed: * Species are introduced from overseas and others are removed or controlled by mowing, weeding or the use of pesticides/herbicides * Sports fields reduce the diversity of plant species by maintaining grass pitches * Altruistic motives- to give a dull urban area some colour and improving the aesthetic value of the area * Improving the visual outlook-hiding eyesores (e. g. actories) encourage businesses or residents to move in * Schools produce a diverse environment for study purposes * Local businesses may want a pleasant site to attract customers * Local authorities provide the public with an arboretum * Birdwatchers wish for a diverse environment to attract new species * Act as noise and pollution inhibitors * Provide shade in hot urban environments * Reduce soil erosion on embankments Changes in the rural urban fringe * Although much of the land on the rural/urban fringe is a green belt area meaning that it’s protected from development, there will be increasing pressure to do so as plans for 50,000 houses over the next few years. The rural urban fringe is under pressure from development, In the UK are designated green belt, with regulations that strictly control new development * Farmers face problems from illegal encampments, trespassing and vandalism * Secondary succession may begin on unintended fields with the growth of weeds * Despite a lack of investment, land prices are often high, due to speculation of future development, derelict land has an advantage in gaining planning permission * Recent government policy is in favour of sustainable development of the rural-urban fringe and the recycling of derelict/degraded land e. g. planting of woodland * Country parks are relatively unmanaged and harbour more natural plant communities, providing potential breeding sites for bird species. e. g. skylark Ecological conservation areas Conservation areas are developed for: * Encouraging wildlife back into cities * Making cheap use of an otherwise derelict area Reducing maintenance costs in an area * Maintaining a diverse species base and reintroducing locally extinct species Such work includes: * Planting of trees, planting of native species, dredging of ponds and soil improvements * Group organisations behind such conservation include: The National Trust Different groups have different priorities, local authorities have planning needs and have to balance the desire to make use o f derelict land against the potential cost to local taxpayers E. g. conservation groups want to create environments where traditional species can establish and local people want a safe environment for leisure Dulwich Upper Wood conservation area This was once a wooded area and the site of Crystal Palace however now it has been turned in to an ecological conservation area which is open and attempt to accommodate everyone. * Is open at all times * Has a network of trails, some are suitable for wheelchairs Species in the wood * Trees e. g. Oak and ash, ground in the wood is deeply shaded, only a few shrubs e. g. Laurel and a few plants from the ancient woodland e. g. bluebell * Over 250 types of fungi e. g. mushrooms, they live on dead wood or leaf litter helping to break down these materials and return nutrients to the soil * Many mammals e. g. foxes and over 40 species of birds e. g. woodpeckers Why the site is interesting? Conservation of both abandoned Victorian gardens and ancient woodland * A number of preserved and re-created habitats e. g. wet areas and herb gardens * The site is both managed and allowed to grow wild in some areas, a range of different habitats * Plenty of wildlife, over 40 species of birds * Original habitats preserved, enabling native species of plants and animals to survive * A good example of how habitats can be preserved and created and still allow public access through a network of trails * The site has an educational value with a posted nature trail Ecosystem issues on a global scale Human activity, biodiversity and sustainability * World’s population continues to grow, increasing the stress upon resources and environmental systems e. g. ater, land * Population and growth and economic development resulted in spiralling demand for natural resources and reduction in natural ecosystems and biodiversity * 2005, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment- stated that humans have changed ecosystems extensively, resulting in a substantial los s of the diversity of life on Earth * 1/3 of plant species are threatened globally and that climate change could result in the extinction of up to 1 million of the world’s species by 2050 * United Nations and the World Wide Fund for Nature are working to educate people to protect ecosystems and to support sustainable development * 1997 Kyoto conference on the environment resulted in the most industrialised countries agreeing to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by 30% by 2010 * UK government created the UK biodiversity Action Plan in 1994, setting aims for the next 20 years: * Protecting the best sites for wildlife-10% of the UK designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s) * Targeting action on priority species and habitats-2007 UK diversity Partnership published list of 1,149 priority species and 65 habitats * Embedding consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in all sections of policy * Encouraging people to change their behaviour, to environm ental issues Management of fragile environments A fragile environment lacks resilience to a change in conditions, many ecosystems are vulnerable to change e. g. introduction of foreign species CASE STUDY: Central Amazon Conservation Complex (tropical rainforests) The destruction of the Amazon rainforest has been particularly harmful to the biodiversity there. To prevent this some places have been protected by law meaning that they are undisturbed.There are three separate reserves which are linked and is known as the Central Amazon Conservation Complex. The total size of these three areas is bigger than Switzerland. 1. Jau National Park 2,272,000 ha 2. Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve 260,000 ha 3. Amana Sustainable Development Reserve 2,230,000 ha This is a UNESCO world heritage site is the second largest protected area of tropical rainforest in the world. The area is sparsely populated and there are no transport links other than boats. There are no major projects such as hy droelectric dams and some incidences of hunting and poaching by outsiders for commercial gain This area has one of the most diverse flora and fauna in the world.These include: * 200+ species of mammals * 500+ species of birds e. g. parrots * 300+ species of fish * Reptiles and amphibians e. g. coral snake Some of these are endangered which means that the area requires extra protection. e. g. spider monkey and puma Management The management has three main functions: * To protect the land and to minimise the impact of human activity * To research, catalogue and protect biodiversity * To manage specific activities, such as tourism They have drawn up a zoning plan which shows how much activity has been going on in each area. 1. Primitive Zone – Minimal human intervention as this is land of great natural beauty 2.Extensive Use Zone – There has been a small amount of activity 3. Intensive Use Zone – Environment has been significantly altered due to human intervention 4. Special Use Zone – where services operate to monitor an protect the rainforest A management strategy was developed by local communities and with other representatives resulted in: * Hunting and logging for commercial gain is prohibited * Inhabitants receive environmental education and improved healthcare * Increased economic production from natural resources, ensure a sustainable future for those in the rainforest * Zoning and protection, resulted in an increase in the productivity of the forest and aquatic resourcesCASE STUDY: Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania (savanna grasslands) * The parkland occupies 2,305,100 ha, known for herds of wildebeest, 1,300,000 * Endangered species, African elephant, perhaps only 2,000 left * More than 500 species of birds e. g. flamingo * Populated by the Masai Mara, who have an extensive system of land management which requires large areas for the grazing of cattle and Mara’s cultural code forbids th e eating of wild animals, so biodiversity is protected History * Today over 52,000 Masai Mara * 1980’s, economic situation improved, tourism increased which allowed the park authorities to rebuild the infrastructure and to re-establish anti-poaching units * 90,000 visitors a year, although tourism is managed sustainably-200,000 animals are still illegally killed by poachers each year Management Buffer zones called community Wildlife Management Areas * Local people are encouraged and have legal rights to make decisions regarding the management of wildlife, hoping to curb illegal poaching * 36% of the population live below the poverty line has resulted in ever increasing pressure on existing resources * A new threat to the natural grasslands is the invasion of the non-native Mexican prickly poppy, rapidly takes over an overgrazed land crowding out native species * Tanzania is committed to protecting 42,000km? of land, UK has 1/10 of the land protected The main aim is to preserv e the country’s rich natural heritage and to provide securing breeding grounds for its flora and fauna , safe from the conflicting interests of a growing human population The Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Bangladesh (tropical monsoon forest) Population pressure in Bangladesh is severe, large areas of the forest have been cleared to provide more space for agriculture and settlement e. g. 1000 inhabit every km? Threats A number of risks threaten the Sundarbans: * Climate change- sea levels are rising at 3mm a year, cause flooding of low lying delta land * Abstraction of water-40% reduction in flow leading to increased salinity of the land and water * Deforestation-e. g. in the Himalayas leading to greater volumes of silt being deposited by rivers * 3 million people live in small villages * Fishing camps are a major disturbance in the area, with some illegal hunting and trapping of species e. g. turtles * Water pollution e. g. Khulna aquatic wildlife badly affected * Natural disas ters e. g. 2007 a cyclone killed 3,000 people and most of the larger trees were uprooted Flora and faunaThe Sundarbans consists of a vast network of rivers, mudflats and islands which are vegetated by mangroves(salt tolerant trees), act as natural buffers against storm surges and protect the land from tropical cyclones which occur during the summer monsoon season Endangered predators in this eco-region e. g. Royal Bengal tiger estimated at 350 Management * There are seven conservation areas, including three wildlife sanctuaries * Under the wildlife act of 1974 it is illegal to cultivate the land within the conservation areas or to introduce domestic animals * There is not enough staff or structures in place to enforce the law * The threats to the area require more cross border cooperation with India as well as financial support * Plans must include a high degree of local community involvement to allow sustainable use of the forest

Stress Management Among Bank Employees

INTRODUCTION: Pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep one motivated. But excessive pressure can lead to stress, which undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill. Stress is ubiquitous and has become an integral part of everyday living, an unavoidable consequence of modern living. Stress is a condition of strain that has a direct bearing on emotions, thought process and physical conditions of a person. During the past decade, the banking sector had under gone rapid and striking changes like policy changes, increased competition due to the entrance of more private sector banks, introduction of new technologies, etc. Due to these changes, the employees in the banking sector are experiencing a high level of stress. Bank employees admit that stress is affecting their jobs, family life and health. Unpredictable economy, pressure to maintain profitability and increased responsibilities are main causes of stress. OBJECTIVES †¢ To analyze the origin and growth level of banking sector in Tirupur region To analyze the level of job stress among bank employees in Tirupur region. †¢ To analyze the contribution of over load, authority, conflict and Lack of Support from colic’s to the job stress among bank employees in Tirupur region. †¢ To analyze the importance of interventional strategies at organizational level to manage stress among bank employees. †¢ To analyze th e role of stress in interpersonal relationship †¢ To evaluate the progress, goals and success of stress management programme organized by the banks †¢ To give suitable suggestions to the banking sector to develop tressless working condition among the bank employees (1. 1) CONCEPT OF STRESS (1. 1. 1) INTRODUCTION TO STRESS A lot of research has been conducted into stress over the last hundred years. Some of the theories behind it are now settled and accepted; others are still being researched and debated. During this time, there seems to have been something approaching open warfare between competing theories and definitions: Views have been passionately held and aggressively defended. What complicates this is that intuitively we all feel that we know what stress is, as it is something we have all experienced. A definition should therefore be obvious†¦except that it is not. Definition: Hans Selye was one of the founding fathers of stress research. His view in 1956 was that â€Å"stress is not necessarily something bad – it all depends on how you take it. The stress of exhilarating, creative successful work is beneficial, while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental. † Selye believed that the biochemical effects of stress would be experienced irrespective of whether the situation was positive or negative. Since then, a great deal of further research has been conducted, and ideas have moved on. Stress is now viewed as a â€Å"bad thing†, with a range of harmful biochemical and long-term effects. These effects have rarely been observed in positive situations. The most commonly accepted definition of stress (mainly attributed to Richard S Lazarus) is that, Stress is a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that â€Å"demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize. † In short, it's what we feel when we think we've lost control of events. This is the main definition used by this section of Mind Tools, although we also recognize that there is an intertwined instinctive stress response to unexpected events. The stress response inside us is therefore part instinct and part to do with the way we think. The types of stress are as follows Mechanical †¢Stress (physics), the average amount of force exerted per unit area. †¢Yield stress, the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. †¢Compressive stress, the stress applied to materials resulting in their compaction. Biological Stress (biological), physiological or psychological stress; some types include: a) Chronic stress, persistent stress which can lead to illness and mental disorder b) Eustress, positive stress that can lead to improved long-term functioning c) Workplace stress, stress caused by employment Music †¢Accent (music). †¢Stress (band), an early '80s melodic rock band from San Diego. †¢Stress (punk band), an early '80s punk rock band from Athens. †¢Stress (Neo-Psychedelic band), from the late 1980's. †¢Stress, a song by the French band Justice on their debut album Other Stress (game), card game †¢Stress (linguistics), phonological use of prominence in language Chronic stress Chronic stress is stress that lasts a long time or occurs frequently. Chronic stress is potentially damaging. Symptoms of chronic stress can be: †¢Upset stomach †¢Headache †¢Backache †¢Insomnia †¢Anxiety †¢Depression †¢Anger is the most severe cases it can lead to panic attacks or a panic disorder. There are a variety of methods to control chronic stress, including exercise, healthy diet, stress management, relaxation techniques, adequate rest, and relaxing hobbies. 1. 1. 2) what is Stress? Stress refers to the strain from the conflict between our external environment ands, leading to emotional and physical pressure. In our fast paced world, it is impossible to live without st ress, whether you are a student or a working adult. There is both positive and negative stress, depending on each individual’s unique perception of the tension between the two forces. Not all stress is bad. For example, positive stress, also known as eustress, can help an individual to function at optimal effectiveness and efficiency. Hence, it is evident that some form of positive stress can add more color and vibrancy to our lives. The presence of a deadline, for example, can push us to make the most of our time and produce greater efficiency. It is important to keep this in mind, as stress management refers to using stress to our advantage, and not on eradicating the presence of stress in our lives. On the other hand, negative stress can result in mental and physical strain. The individual will experience symptoms such as tensions, headaches, irritability and in extreme cases, heart palpitations. Hence, whilst some stress may be seen as a motivating force, it is important to manage stress levels so that it does not have an adverse impact on your health and relationships. Part of managing your stress levels include learning about how stress can affect you emotionally and physically, as well as how to identify if you are performing at your optimal stress level (OSL) or if you are experiencing negative stress. This knowledge will help you to identify when you need to take a break, or perhaps seek professional help. It is also your first step towards developing techniques to managing your stress levels. Modern day stresses can take the form of monetary needs, or emotional frictions. Competition at work and an increased workload can also cause greater levels of stress. How do you identify if you are suffering from excessive stress? Psychological symptoms commonly experienced include insomnia, headaches and an inability to focus. Physical symptoms take the form of heart palpitations, breathlessness, excessive sweating and stomachaches. What causes stress? There are many different causes of stress, and that which causes stress is also known as a stressor. Common lifestyle stressors include performance, threat, and bereavement stressors, to name a few. Performance stressors are triggered when an individual is placed in a situation where he feels a need to excel. This could be during performance appraisals, lunch with the boss, or giving a speech. Threat stressors are usually when the current situation poses a dangerous threat, such as an economic downturn, or from an accident. Lastly, bereavement stressors occur when there is a sense of loss such as the death of a loved one, or a prized possession. Thus, there are various stressors, and even more varied methods and techniques of dealing with stress and turning it to our advantages. In order to do so, we must learn to tell when we have crossed the line from positive to negative stress. Good stress v/s Bad stress: Stress has often been misunderstood to be negative, with few people acknowledging the importance and usefulness of positive stress. In our everyday lives, stress is everywhere and definitely unavoidable; hence our mphasis should be on differentiating between what is good stress, and what is bad. This will help us to learn to cope with negative stress, and harness the power of positive stress to help us achieve more. There are 4 main categories of stress, namely eustress, distress, hyper stress and hypo stress. Negative stress can cause many physical and psychological problems, whilst positive stres s can be very helpful for us. Here’s how we differentiate between them. Eustress: This is a positive form of stress, which prepares your mind and body for the imminent challenges that it has perceived. Eustress is a natural physical reaction by your body which increases blood flow to your muscles, resulting in a higher heart rate. Athletes before a competition or perhaps a manager before a major presentation would do well with eustress, allowing them to derive the inspiration and strength that is needed. Distress: We are familiar with this word, and know that it is a negative form of stress. This occurs when the mind and body is unable to cope with changes, and usually occurs when there are deviations from the norm. They can be categorized into acute stress and chronic stress. Acute stress is intense, but does not last for long. On the other hand, chronic stress persists over a long period of time. Trigger events for distress can be a change in job scope or routine that the person is unable to handle or cope with. Hyper stress: This is another form of negative stress that occurs when the individual is unable to cope with the workload. Examples include highly stressful jobs, which require longer working hours than the individual can handle. If you suspect that you are suffering from hyper stress, you are likely to have sudden emotional breakdowns over insignificant issues, the proverbial straws hat broke the camel’s back. It is important for you to recognize that your body needs a break, or you may end up with severe and chronic physical and psychological reactions. Hypo stress: Lastly, hypo stress occurs when a person has nothing to do with his time and feels constantly bored and unmotivated. This is due to an insufficient amount of stress; hence so me stress is inevitable and helpful to us. Companies should avoid having workers who experience hypo stress as this will cause productivity and mindfulness to fall. If the job scope is boring and repetitive, it would be a good idea to implement some form of job rotation so that there is always something new to learn. The types of stress are named as eustress and distress. Distress is the most commonly-referred to type of stress, having negative implications; whereas eustress is a positive form of stress, usually related to desirable events in person’s life. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to a change that has caused it. (1. 1. ) Coping with Stress at Work place With the rapid advancement of technology, the stresses faced at work have also increased. Many people dread going to work, hence the term â€Å"Monday Blues†. What is the reason for this? There is partly the fear from being retrenched in bedtimes, leading to greater job insecurity on the part of those who remain. Undoubtedly, occupational stress is one of the most commonly cited stressors faced by people all over the world. Stress refers to the pressure and reactions to our environment which results in psychological and physical reactions. Whilst some stress is good for motivation and increasing efficiency, too much stress can result in negative impacts such as reduced effectiveness and efficiency. More and more people are feeling isolated and disrespected at work, and this has led to greater occupational stress. Many companies have taken to consulting experts and professionals on ways to increase connectedness and motivation of their employees. Some companies organize parties and make their employees feel valued at work. These are measures to motivate employees and help them to feel secure at their jobs, translating into greater productivity. However, not all companies have such measures in place, and some have not gotten it quite right. Hence, it is up to you to make sure that you can cope with stress at your workplace, and use it to help you work better. Here are 3 simple steps to help you with coping with stress in the workplace. Step 1: Raising Awareness Help yourself to identify when you are facing rising levels of stress, tipping the scales from positive to negative. This is important, as being able to identify signs of being stressed can help you to take steps to ensure that your overall quality of life does not drop. If left unacknowledged, the problem will only snowball, leading to disastrous consequences to your health and overall wellbeing. You can identify if you are feeling stressed by checking if you have any physical or psychological reactions, such as excessive sweating or heart palpitations, or the onset of headaches, irritability or the need to escape. If you experience any of these reactions, identify if you are feeling any overwhelming negative emotions, and if you are constantly worried. Step 2: Identify the Cause You need to be able to analyze the situation and identify what is causing the rise in stress. These stressors can be external and internal. External stressors refer to things beyond your control, such as the environment or your colleagues at work. Internal stressors refer to your own thinking and attitude. Often, we only start reacting to stress when a combination of stressors working together exceeds our ability to cope. Keep a diary or a list of events that have caused you to feel strong negative emotions, or that are likely stressors. This will help you to identify the causes of your stress. Whilst it is not always possible to eradicate them, we can change the way that we cope with it. Step 3: Coping with Stress In order to deal with the situation that is causing you stress, you need to calm your mind and body so as to stave off the reactions and cope with it in a positive way. This can be through different methods, such as taking time off. If a situation is triggering your stress and you are unable to calm down, remove yourself from it. Go outside and take a walk to calm down. Alternatively, you can try implementing relaxation techniques such as deep breathing. If it is an internal stressor, stop your thought process until you are able to deal with it logically. The key to making these 3 steps work for you is to practice them. These are not instantaneous solutions, and you need to condition your mind and practice them so that you can implement it when you are feeling stressed. (1. 1. 4) Stress Management Stress management is the need of the hour. However hard we try to go beyond a stress situation, life seems to find new ways of stressing us out and plaguing us with anxiety attacks. Moreover, be it our anxiety, mind-body exhaustion or our erring attitudes, we tend to overlook causes of stress and the conditions triggered by those. In such unsettling moments we often forget that stressors, if not escapable, are fairly manageable and treatable. Stress, either quick or constant, can induce risky body-mind disorders. Immediate disorders such as dizzy spells, anxiety attacks, tension, sleeplessness, nervousness and muscle cramps can all result in chronic health problems. They may also affect our immune, cardiovascular and nervous systems and lead individuals to habitual addictions, which are inter-linked ith stress. Like â€Å"stress reactions†, â€Å"relaxation responses† and stress management techniques are some of the body's important built-in response systems. As relaxation response the body tries to get back balance in its homeostasis. Some hormones released during the ‘fight or flight' situation prompt the body to replace the lost carbohydra tes and fats, and restore the energy level. The knotted nerves, tightened muscles and an exhausted mind crave for looseness. Unfortunately, today, we don't get relaxing and soothing situations without asking. To be relaxed we have to strive to create such situations. Recognizing a stressor: It is important to recognize whether you are under stress or out of it. Many times, even if we are under the influence of a stressful condition and our body reacts to it internally as well as externally, we fail to realize that we are reacting under stress. This also happens when the causes of stress are there long enough for us to get habituated to them. The body constantly tries to tell us through symptoms such as rapid palpitation, dizzy spells, tight muscles or various body aches that something is wrong. It is important to remain attentive to such symptoms and to learn to cope with the situations. We cope better with stressful situation, when we encounter them voluntarily. In case of relocation, promotion or layoff, adventurous sports or having a baby, we tend to respond positively under stress. But, when we are compelled into such situations against our will or knowledge, more often than not, we wilt at the face of unknown and imagined threats. For instance, stress may mount when one is coerced into undertaking some work against one's will.

Herpeutic relationships in nursing

For Carl Rogers, discussing therapeutic relationships suggests that the relationship between the one being helped and the helper is a mutual one. Buber (1966) opposed and disagreed with Rogers and suggested that, because it is always the patient that comes to the professional for help and not the other way around, the relationship can never be a mutual one. Mutualism is defined as ‘the relation between two different species of organisms that are interdependent; each gains benefits from the other', (dictionary. eference. com (2008). Campbell (1984) said the role of a nurse in a therapeutic relationship is; somebody who shares freely with others, but does not interfere and allow others to make and define their own journey. Patterson (1985) believes that the relationship itself is central and quoted that ‘counselling or psychotherapy is an interpersonal relationship. Note that I don't say that counselling or psychotherapy involves an interpersonal relationship-it is an inter personal relationship'. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) influence a therapeutic relationship throughout The Code (2008), it quotes ‘you must listen to the people in your care and respond to their concerns and preferences and you must make arrangements to meet people's language and communication needs'. It encourages nurses to develop their relationship with the patient through the use of communication skills and through educating the patient about their illness. A therapeutic relationship is based on the communication between the nurse and the client themselves. You can read also Coronary Artery Disease Nursing Care Plan Communication involves almost every aspect of our interactions with others; and it plays an important part in any relationship. The holistic approach helps us, as nurses to encourage/support and authorize the patient with the accurate knowledge and understanding in order to help them to recover from their illness. If the nurse has the aptitude to communicate skilfully with the patient, throughout developing a therapeutic relationship, the patient will be more eager and willing to communicate and be more open with the nurse. Within a therapeutic relationship, trust is essential (holisticlocal. co. uk), and helps the nurse to increase their chance in healing the patient to overcome their illness and gain their respect. Patients expect the nurse to have the essential knowledge and to be able to display caring attitudes, so that they are able to trust the nurse and assign their care to the Professional. Breaching trust can make it very hard to re-establish it and therefore if a promise is made it should be adhered to. Mitchell and Cormack(1998) agree with this as they believed ‘patients themselves value therapeutic relationships which offer respect, trust, and care and it seems that such relationships may in themselves prove to be healing in the broadest sense' (Mitchell & Cormack (1998). In relationships constantly agreeing/ disagreeing with the other person on every occasion is not necessary as this could lead to aggravation, annoyance, and eventual dissatisfaction. Particular skills are needed to be adequately assertive without damaging the relationship. There are a variety of key skills which incorporate inside this relationship. Listening attentively and fully taking in to consideration what the patient is saying is perhaps the single most important skill that must be accomplished by the nurse. Listening to the patient without instantly giving suggestions and advice or diminishing the client's opinion, is central to the establishment of developing a relationship. Listening refers to more than hearing what the patient says and Rogers (1980) believed that ‘In some sense attending and listening means that you lay aside yourself; this can only be done by persons who are secure enough in themselves that they know they will not get lost in what may turn out to be the strange and bizarre world of the other, and that they can comfortably return to their own world when they wish', he is referring to ‘getting lost in the world of the other'. Burnard (1997) describes the art of ‘attending' as the act of truly focusing on the other person, consciously making ourselves aware of what they are saying and what they are trying to communicate. Vital to the establishment and construction of a therapeutic relationship is the nurses own capability to use an extensive range of communication skills, strategies and interpersonal skills. Effective and successful communication is a necessary aspect in producing and preserving a successful relationship. Regardless of the surroundings and the duration of interaction, the nurse acts in therapeutic ways to supervise the limitations of the relationship. This could involve tasks such as, the nurse introducing themselves to the client and addressing the patient by their preferred name/title, or showing a genuine interest in, and compassion for the client. In a therapeutic relationship between the nurse and the patient the power tends to be unequal, although nurses may not observe themselves as having power and authority in the relationship. The nurse should always try and remember that the patient is in a vulnerable position and due to the nurse's amount of health care knowledge and her position in the health care system the patient may feel more vulnerable than they already are. The misuse of power /authority can be known as abuse and using it appropriately enables the nurse to maintain paramount professionalism as well as dealing with the patients requirements. Empathy is also part of the structure of a nurse and patient relationship. Burnard (1995) defines empathy as ‘the ability to perceive accurately the feelings of another person and to communicate this understanding to him'. The nurse should be able to view the patient's illness and circumstances from their position and not look down upon them from an exalted position and the patient should not be made to feel vulnerable. Millenson concludes by stating ‘accurate empathy is always empowering, since it represents an understanding and acceptance of the speakers feelings' (Millenson, 1995). Respecting the client and their dignity at all times is fundamental to the relationship between the nurse and the client. The nurse should appreciate and understand the patient's religion, culture and the other aspects related to the patient themselves and the patient's background, and whilst providing care these factors should be taken in to account. Respect is not an attitude; it is an element that nurses should ‘master' and when showing respect nurses should make a difference in the way a patient is seen. Mayeroff (1971) believes that it is ‘more than good intentions and warm regards'. There are certain skills that users can use in attending to clients, in order to generate a therapeutic environment. They can be summarised in the acronym S-O-L-E-R. Sit facing the patient squarely; adopting a posture that indicates involvement is important. Open posture, crossed arms and legs illustrate lessened participation/availability; an open posture shows that you are open to the client and to what they have to say. Lean slightly towards the other person to enhance communication. Establish eye contact with the patient, keeping it fairly steady but not staring. Relax, and don't be nervous, adopt a comfortable posture and this will also helps put the client at ease. People might use these guidelines differently in relation to culture and individuality, so they should not be taken as absolute rules. Therapeutic relationships are also encouraged, supported and developed by members of the multi-disciplinary team, for example; doctors. Doctors support patients by educating them about their illness and also by developing a therapeutic relationship with the patient. They have to consider professional intimacy and also the method in which they communicate with the patient, since giving bad news is very different to giving good news and they also have to think about their facial expressions and body language and show empathy. This also relates to other members of the Multi Disciplinary team (MDT), such as physiotherapists, psychologists, dieticians etc. During practice, I have had to think about my communication skills, key elements and professional intimacy, on an occasion, were I communicated with the relatives of a terminally ill patient. The wife of this patient was crying, and therefore in order to comfort her, I talked to her, held her, hand and gave her a hug. The communication skills I used were Empathy, which Mayeroff (1971) believes is an essential part of caring. I also used verbal communication and non verbal communication, which is described as ‘an awareness of your body and mind as a source of communication' Egan(1990) and also showing respect, Rogers (1961, 1967) ‘You are there to help clients, not to judge them', following Standal (1954), who calls this kind of respect ‘unconditional positive regard' Egan(1990).

Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 36

Homework - Essay Example In the ensuing years, beginning 2010, the economy started to pick up, as the firms that had closed down during the financial crisis resumed and people were slowly but surely getting back their jobs. As early as 2013, the fight against the fiscal cliff was almost concluded and every other macroeconomic element looked to be back in their right shape. Since the end of the credit crunch, the US has enjoyed years of uninterrupted economic gains. Unemployment has significantly reduced, as well as the inflation rate. However, much as things have been improving, economists argue that the pace is a bit slower than the one that was witnessed in the wake of World War II. Statistically speaking, the US economic growth rate has averaged about 2.25% since it started bouncing back from the effects of the 2008/9 credit crunch. In 2014, the growth rate was thought to have gone below 1%, and unemployment hasn’t reduced to desired levels (Recession and Recovery, 2014). The dragging growth rather is mainly attributed to the budget problems. The fiscal cliff did not do enough to reduce the budget deficit which was almost $0.98 trillion in 2014. In the years preceding the global financial crisis, the United States economy was growing at a rate of about 3.25% and the budget deficit was as low as $0.5 trillion. As it stands currently, the budget deficit needs to be cut by about $0.3 trillion for the economy to be said to be recovering at a good pace. Unemployment: For four years since 2009, the unemployment statistics in the US had been coming down at a slow but a steady pace. For instance, by the start of 2014, about 160 jobs opportunities had been created and the unemployment rate stood at 7.7%. Taxes: The fiscal cliff debates were mostly about raising taxes for the rich, but it emerges that most of the middle-class Americans part with an additional $600-1200 annually. This is mainly attributable to the expiration of the payroll

Lesson Plan Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Lesson Plan Analysis - Essay Example Another benefit of this game is that it has too much variety to it and once children know how to play it and the teacher knows how to monitor them then there is a long way to go. Another reason for its attractiveness is that it stimulates children verbally and mentally. It keeps evolving at such a pace that children get engrossed in playing it. Teacher can focus on the vocabulary or use of fully grammatically correct sentences. The development of coherent speech at a good rate can be achieved if a teacher keeps incorporating this game in class lessons. It also provides the teacher with an opportunity to assess the language while playing. The only constraint I can see is of arrangement of the material. The lesson 'What did you wear today' is an excellent example of one to one presentation. Reasoning abilities can build besides building the blocks. Blocks are very helpful and useful to give math and science concepts and many other adjustments are possible with blocks. The hand -eye coordination along with counting and fine motor skills gets developed at a good pace. Sooner or later child will be able to relate the similarities and relationships of objects. Massive amount of vocabulary related to clothing can be given and then become more targeted depending on teacher's intentions of teaching. I think there are too many concepts taken care of in this lesson, for example, vocabulary, the concept of present tense, counting, magnitude, enumerations etc. They also get to explore sizes, shapes and different weights. At last but not the least is that it gives them an opportunity to solve construction problems and make a decision every time they want to build. At the age of 3 to 4, childre n can very comfortably build vertical or horizontal towers and can easily get the sense of accomplishment. Free play can be a very good option with blocks children can love building stacks on their own. But expecting children to repeat the whole process on their own will be a high expectation. Language development can also take place during the free play or instructional play along with the growth of social skills. A good lesson always gives a chance to a teacher to assess the child and it does for sure. Most of the preschool teachers consider free play time very significant and children cherish it. It is very essential for psychological development of children. The science lesson "Ice block Designs" is a very good example of free play where children can be in high spirits. Hutt,Tyler,Hutt & Christopherson (1990) write, " Free-play with material, outcome is unpredictable" (p.122.) An adult just need to monitor and let the children generate language, build concepts and explore with minimum intervention. Children can develop the concept of colors, textures and experiment. Reasoning, expressing original thoughts and improvement of co ordination can be stepped forward through this lesson. Open ended data can also be obtained by questioning and supplying attractive materials. The only draw back again is of arranging the ice blocks and keeping the weather in mind before carrying out the activity. The social studies lesson "Shoe skating" can be a good follow up lesson. Again in this class, children can have lot of fun as it will give some time to free play and pretend to skate.

Divine Roles Across Cultures Matrix Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Divine Roles Across Cultures Matrix - Assignment Example He was among the hateful gods in regard to his father Zeus. He used to get into battles in the company of his fellow gods. In the myth, he is described as having an attractive and charming personality. Huitzilopochtli is a male god of war whom he is shown to have dominated a number of features that are mainly. Huitzilopochtli promised to protect her mother and later on killed her murderers while he was in his mother’s womb. Within the myth of origin, how does this divinity compare with other divinities? How does this divinity interact with or compare to divinities of the same gender and to divinities of the opposite gender? Huitzilopochtli gained importance among Aztec gods at a slow rate. He was ranked similarly to Quetzalcoatl and others. He replaced the classical god of the sun later on in Nahua legends. His darkness struggle needed considerable sacrifices such as human blood to protect the continuous earth’s survival. Ares persisted in the unchanging fight together with his brothers and other Greek gods. He was very aggressive. He did a wonderful role during gods’ war in the Olympians victory. He was competitive despite being misled easily by female goddesses. Huitzilopochtli depended on weapons that need experience and enough skill to become proficient in. These weapons included swords and knives. His age increased at a slower rate although he was not immortal. Ares had powers of superhuman strength, regeneration, superhuman speed and fire manipulation power. He, in particular, had no signature weapon as he was a god of war. He commonly used either a sword or a spear together with a shield. Four-fire breathing horses depicted him towards the battle. . Identify one character from contemporary culture that shares characteristics of each divinity and explains why you chose each character. What real-life ideals does this divine role represent? How attainable are these ideals? Huitzilopochtli is regarded as a hummingbird.

Ways in which The Internet Has changed political interactions globally Essay

Ways in which The Internet Has changed political interactions globally - Essay Example Through the internet, people have been able to interact with leaders online through social media like face book where they ask questions and the leaders respond immediately. In this way, leaders are held accountable while they also get a chance to explain their challenges to their constituents. Political parties have also used internet to raise campaign funds (Bruce and Richard 64). In the United States of America, Barrack Obama is credited to have used social media to campaign for the presidency and to raise funds. This helped him to reach so many people within a very short time contributing to his popularity and subsequent election to the presidency. In the Middle East, the president of Egypt was ousted from power as people used the social media to mobilise as many people as possible to come together and demand the resignation of President Mubarak. The social sites like Twitter were used to share information with the rest of the world including sending pictures of the situation on the ground and this made the whole world to condemn the manner in which protesters were beaten and harassed by the government. Eventually the international community joined min and demanded the resignation of the Egyptian president. The internet has therefore contributed to the growth of democracy min the global politics. Internet has also influenced global political interactions with the emergence of e-government. This has given the government a channel through which it can interact with the citizens with an intention of getting feedback and increasing citizen’s participation in decision-making. Government’s openness in doing business is therefore enhanced, as every expenditure of its revenue is questioned hence reducing chances of corruption in government transactions. Political parties have adopted, online voter registration, as they will reach many

How the American media influenced Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

How the American media influenced Japan - Essay Example as well as political effects on a society, and thus, a huge number of scholars and experts are putting efforts to understand the influence and effects of media on its own society, as well as societies around the globe. In particular, this paper will be endeavor to analyze the role of American media in the Japanese society, and will attempt to identify different aspects of the American media that is playing a crucial role in altering the Japanese culture and society. In sociology, experts (Richardson, pp. 23-25) consider American media as a powerful body that has the command of influencing nations globally, and they often term American media as ‘pop culture.’ In specific, American media is a wide sector involving huge range of components, such as television, films, newspapers, and radio; however, experts believe that only television and films have the ability to influences masses due to their long-ranging availability as compared with newspapers and radio that confront limitation of national, as well as educational boundaries. Interestingly, the two components of the American media: television and films have yet been successful in promoting individuals in other countries to think, behave, act, and respond in an American way, and that is visible in most of the countries, especially the Asian countries that are already under influence of American politics and power. It is an observation that sociologists (Porter, pp. 12-13) in Japan are now afraid of cultural homogenization in the country due to increment in the influence of American pop culture globally. In this regard, they are putting efforts to prevent such cultural deterioration in a significant manner by putting barriers. Still, the American media has been successful in acquiring mass audience in Japan, and nowadays, MTV, Star World, Hollywood, etc have now become a part of Japanese society, especially young members of Japan that will be the future leaders of Japanese culture and society. A number of

Economic Concepts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economic Concepts - Assignment Example Eventually, the importance of trading with each other will be realized as both parties become better off as a result of such trade. Economic Concepts 1. What is Michelle’s opportunity cost of producing potatoes? 200 potatoes = 50 chickens --> 200/200 potatoes = 50/200 chickens --> 1 potato = ? chicken or 0.25 Opportunity cost of producing one potato is ? chicken or .25. 2. What is Michelle’s opportunity cost of producing chickens? 50 chickens = 200 potatoes --> 50/50 chickens = 200/50 potatoes --> 1 chicken = 4 potatoes Opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 4 potatoes. 3. What is James’ opportunity cost of producing potatoes? 80 potatoes = 40 chickens --> 80/80 potatoes = 40/80 chickens --> 1 potato = ? chicken Opportunity cost of producing one potato is ? chicken. 4. What is James’ opportunity cost of producing chickens? 40 chickens =80 potatoes --> 40/40 chickens = 80/40 potatoes --> 1 chicken = 2 potatoes Opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 2 potatoes. 5. Which person has an absolute advantage in which activities? For Michelle: Opportunity cost of producing one potato is ? chicken. And opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 4 potatoes. For James: Opportunity cost of producing one potato is ? chicken. And opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 2 potatoes. ... This means that Michelle has the comparative advantage in producing one potato because it is cheaper for her to do this. 7. Which person has comparative advantage in chicken? For Michelle: The opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 4 potatoes. For James opportunity cost of producing one chicken is 2 potatoes. Hence, James has the lower opportunity cost for producing one chicken. This means that James has the comparative advantage in producing one chicken because it is cheaper for him to do this. 8. Suppose that they are thinking of each specializing completely in the area in which they have a comparative advantage, and then trading at a rate of 2.5 pounds of potatoes for 1 chicken, would they each be better off? Explain. Yes, both Michelle and James will be better off if they specialize in the area in which they have a comparative advantage and trade at a rate of 2.5 pounds of potatoes for 1 chicken. Michelle will specialize in producing potatoes while James will specialize in raising chickens. If Michelle will specialize in producing potatoes, she will produce 200 potatoes which when traded at a rate of 2.5 pounds for 1 chicken will produce 80 chickens (as shown below) as opposed to 50 chickens she would have produced if she specialized on raising them. 200 pounds of potatoes/ 2.5 pounds = 80 chickens. If James will specialize in raising chickens, he will produce 40 chickens which when traded at a rate of one chicken for 2.5 pounds of potatoes will produce 100 potatoes (as shown below) as opposed to producing 80 potatoes he would have produced if he specialized on planting them. 40 chickens x 2.5 pounds of potatoes = 100 potatoes. 9. How would you extend the above narrative to businesses, society as a whole or nations?

United States Declaration of Independence Essay Example for Free

United States Declaration of Independence Essay John Locke was born on August 29th, 1632 in Somerset, England. He first studied medicine at Oxford University, and then later became a highly influential British philosopher. His ideas and literary works largely influenced people and governments during both his time, and ours. In his major works, Locke wrote down his ideas on topics such as political philosophy, education, and epistemology. In John Locke’s works on the topic of political philosophy, he introduced his ideas on the subjects of natural rights and the social contract. Locke’s ideas on these subjects have been largely influential in the development of the foundation of modern government. One of John Lockes most influential ideas was the thought that everyone had specific natural rights. In his opinion, there are certain natural rights that every person is entitled to have. According to Locke, these include the rights to life, liberty, and property. He developed these ideas in his most renowned piece of literary work called Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government. In this document, Locke writes that people should give up some natural freedoms in order to cooperate with the common law, and in return, the government should protect them. Another main point Locke makes is that citizens in any given country have the right, and obligation, to replace their current government if the regime is abusing its powers. Locke writes Every man has a property in his own person. This nobody has a right to, but himself. The ideas put forth in his Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government inspired the libertarian ideals of the American Revolution, and also set an example for those who lived in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Lockes writings were a huge inspiration to the founding fathers of America, and to the people in the original colonies who read Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government on the eve on the Revolution. His anti-authoritarian ideas inspired the creation of a different type of government that protected the rights and freedoms of its people. The Social Contract theory goes hand and hand with natural laws. The social contract is an agreement between the people and their government, where the people agree to obey the state and pay for its services, and the government will make and enforce laws that protects its citizens. This idea of social contract was also talked about in Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government. Many writers who read Locke’s ideas on natural laws and social contract became influenced by him and his ideas, most notably Thomas Jefferson in the American Declaration of Independence. Locke’s Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government can be seen as somewhat of an outline for the Declaration of Independence. An example of this in the Declaration is when it states that every man has a right to â€Å"life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. † This almost directly references Lockes ideas in Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government where he states every man has a right to defend their life, health, Liberty, or possessions. Also, the first sentence of the Declaration establishes a Natural Law based on a theory popularized by Locke. John Locke was and continues to be a huge contributor to modern governments. The ideas of natural rights and the social contract that were put into the Second Treatise Concerning Civil Government , as well as the other writings and ideas John Locke created were a huge inspiration to many people, politicians, and modern governments. Most notably, the United States of America, where Locke’s ideas were put into the Declaration of Independence, and where he inspired the founding fathers to create a government where the people held the power, and every man had equal rights. Without John Locke and his writings, who knows where America and many other non-authoritarian governments would stand today.

A Metaphor Of Postmodernism In Blade Runner

A Metaphor Of Postmodernism In Blade Runner In the film Blade Runner directed by Ridley Scott, the film embodies many important characters aspects of the postmodern cultural period. The film is mostly about what it means to be human in a controlled technological advanced world, and the struggle between humans and replicants. Which are machines that are so much like humans you cant tell them apart, but it has a deeper meaning of a world in the future and you can see this with the many symbols laid out in the film. In the film, it always rains and the sun never shines and the streets are narrow and filthy. The film revisits the past, mimics it and holds it up to ridicule. The freedom that humans give up so easily to machines so willing is the actual danger in the modern society which leads to a post-modern. The postmodernism can be noted from the architectural layout of the film to the waste all over the ground that later leads importance and connects postmodernism to industrialism. Post-modernity is on its way to the future, but then seeks shelter in the past; Blade Runner has many boundaries between past and present. The audience is told the film is set in the future in 2019, but there still happens to be a lot of evidence of the past such as; the eighties clothes and haircuts, the language and the technology looks extremely outdated. Another indication of the past is that Rachel dresses in a 50s clothes and the soundtrack of the film does not follow the normal drama movie music. The reasons why there is evidence of the past are that Blade Runner is a film based in the future that is afraid of the future. Films that are portrayed like this usually are made to warn people about the dangers around the corner. In post-modern films they present the unpresentable and what was formerly thought of as unsuitable. Blade Runner pushes into the future where the unreal becomes real and not just a fantasy or a possibility. Cars fly, and scientist can even plant memories in to machines. These are two examples of the unreal being made real. These kinds of films portray that Postmodernism tends to place the most disturbing things into the everyday living of the characters. In the film Blade Runner the replicants escape on earth and are labelled extremely dangerous. They could be anywhere and they look like anyone. This can be seen as postmodernism being pussed into the future. The film Blade Runner uses many symbols to illuminate post modernity such as the films use of the owl. The owl is not just an owl it is described in three ways a woman, an artificial creature and a product. The role of women is explored with the three lead female roles in the film which are all replicants, an artificial creature. Women in this film are label as models of pleasure and represent that they are just products that can be bought or sold. It gives a whole new meaning to the term woman being characterized by an object. These three things represent a link to the past where postmodern reveals its break with the past. These three things are the unreal made real into one thing where lines of force intersect and these are the places where modernity is transferred into post modernity to the description of a woman. The film doesnt take place in a spaceship with friendly aliens; the film takes place in Los Angeles 2019 in a city full of industries and waste placed in the postmodern period. The future which the film is set in, does not realize their technological order, but they see it as the development of the present day state of the city and the later effects of capitalism. The city is not a modern city, but a postmodern city. It is not an orderly layout of skyscrapers with comfy interiors. The high-tech buildings with high populations are set alongside abandoned buildings and neighbourhoods in decay. Due to the crowding of immigrants the middle class moves to the suburbs or off world if they choose. With a large portion of its people from other countries the melting pot effect of the culture clearly takes place the city explodes with the different cultures making the architectural work imitate the style of many previous works. In the film they have buildings that resemble Egyptian temples, Ch ina, France, and many more. The city itself is a huge Chinatown that is a large market of underground networks in all the regions of the city. With the explosion of immigrants and the moving of the middle-class results in an intercultural first world and third world in the same place. The uniqueness of the architecture and cultures in the film are lost in the postmodernism. Going forward in the future but still in the past and the structures from the past are recollected and they attempt to create an aroma of the memory of history and of the past. Between postmodernism and late capitalism the films representation of this is the industrial decay, such as waste all over the city, rather the film creates an aroma of decay exposing the dark side of technology. It is the waste that the characters of the film constantly step in, and many of the buildings are left to disintegrate. The post-industrial decay is an acceleration of the overall time of the process of the industries. The postmodern visual of Blade Runner is the result of recycling and the system only works if there is waste produced. The disconnected temporality of the replicants and the pastiche city are all an effect of a postmodern, post-industrial condition: wearing out, waste. The continuous expulsion of waste is an indexing sign of the well- functioning apparatus: waste represents its production, movement, and development at increasing speed. Post-industrialism recycles; therefore it needs all the waste. A postmodern position exposes such logic, producing a visual of recycling. The artistic form exhibits the return of the waste. Consumerism, waste and recycling meet in fashion, the wearable art of late capitalism, a sign of postmodernism. Costumes in Blade Runner are designed according to this logic. There is even the increased speed of development and process produces the diminishing of distances. Things cease to function and life is over even if it has not ended. The post-industrial city is a city of ruins. Blade Runner has one main message: that the future is hopeless. It marks a new age by showing its own end. It is shown as industrial and dark, the raining weather and no sunshine which create a moody atmosphere. Technology has progressed so rapidly but, still manages to lack the new look. The postmodernism of this film is displayed throughout this whole film. It represents the chaos of what happens when the people rejected the modern period. It embodies the present pushing forward to the future as well as holding on to the past to create post-industrialism. The more technology we gain and control always has a bad side for everything.

Britannia Industries Problems

Britannia Industries Problems Britannia begins with the business producing electricity. Britannia mechanized its operations, and in 1921, it became the first company in Asia using imported gas ovens. Britannias business was growing. Britannia acquired a reputation for quality and value very fast. During the World War II, the Government rewarded Britannia by contracting it to supply service biscuits to Armed Forces. And therefore the company was incorporated in 1918 as Britannia Biscuits Co. Ltd. in Calcutta and in 1924, Peek Frean UK acquired a controlling stake in the company, which was later passed on to Associated Biscuits International UK (ABI). During the 1950s and 1960s, Britannia expanded its operations beyond Calcutta to Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai. In the year 1978 company went for public issues and Indian shareholding crossed 60%, firmly establishing the Indian ness of the firm and formed Britannia Industries Limited (BIL). It crossed the Rs100 crores revenue mark in next four years (in 1983). In 1987, Nabisco acquired ABI. Then in 1989, JM Pillai, a Singapore-based non-resident Indian (NRI) businessman, and Grouped Danone acquired Asian operations of Nabisco and the controlling stake in Britannia. Later, Danone and Nusli Wadia took over Mr. Pillais holdings. Britannia has been jointly owned by Danone and Wadia Group since 1997. The two along with five other companies form a holding company called Associated Biscuits International Ltd., which owns a 51% share of Britannia. The remaining 49% share is held by the public and financial institutions. On the operations front, In 1997, the company unveiled its new corporate identity Eat Healthy, Think Better and made its first foray into the dairy products market. In 1999, the Britannia Khao, World Cup Jao promotion further fortified the affinity consumers Britannia emerged as one of Indias biggest brands in 21st century in the country. It is equally recognized for taking innovative approach to its products and unique marketing concepts: the Lagaan Match was voted Indias most successful promotional activity of the year 2001 while the delicious Britannia 50-50 Maska-Chaska became Indias most successful product launch. In 2002, Britannias New Business Division formed a joint venture with Fonterra, the worlds second largest Dairy Company, and Britannia New Zealand Foods Pvt. Ltd. was born. In recognition of its vision and accelerating graph, Forbes Global rated Britannia One amongst the Top 200 Small Companies of the World, and The Economic Times pegged Britannia Indias 2nd Most trusted brand. Having succeeded in garnering the trust of almost one-third of Indias one billion populations and a strong management at the helm means Britannia will continue to dream big on its path of innovation and quality. And millions of consumers will savor the results, happily ever after. Britannia puts a lot of emphasis on its primary biscuit brands including Tiger, Good Day, Marie, Milk Bikis, 50:50 and Treat. Biscuits make up more than 80% of the companys production bread, cakes and dairy constitute the remaining 20%. Its brands are considered to be an excellent value by Indias price-conscious consumers. BIL is the first company to introduce the several varieties of biscuits in India, such as 50:50, glucose biscuits for children, chocolate biscuits, butter biscuits and became the household name of the country. In fact some of these brands are bigger than several multinationals in the food business in India. The Tiger brand biscuit, one of the most well-known, is extremely popular among rural consumers with almost 50% of the brands value sales coming in from rural areas. Market of Britannia According to Euromonitor International, Britannia continues to have a strong presence in Indias bakery products industry. In 2001, the company had 18.9% market share for all bakery products; that number rose to 19.9% by 2004. As for the biscuit portion of the business, Britannia had 41.2% market share in 2001 and 43.6% in 2004 when Britannia was the national leader in biscuit sales. Currently Britannia Industries Ltd, accounts for about 38% in value and 32% in volume of the organized biscuits market in India. Bakery product sales increased from 13.9 billion Rupees (US$295.6 million) in 2001 to 17.2 billion Rupees (US$368.1 million) in 2004, a 7.6% compound annual growth rate. Biscuits made up 82% of Britannias bakery products value sales in 2001 and rose to 85% in 2004. Of Britannias total biscuit value sales, 82% are from sweet biscuits and 18% are from savory biscuits and crackers. In the companys baked foods category, 87% consist of bread products, 13% are cakes. The entire biscuit market is estimated to be around 1.1 million tones per annum, totaling to around Rs 50 billion. The biscuit segments enjoy the most developed markets for any item having mass consumption, It covers over 90% of the overall potential market. This means over 900 million Indians consumes biscuits, with varying frequency in a year. From the supply side the market is highly competitive, with many small scale manufactures and the organized large scale sectors. [Source http://www.superbrandsindia.com/images/superbrands_book_2004/britannia/index.htm] After the 1997 Britannia changed its strategies from product oriented to opportunity oriented. Earlier Britannia has narrow lined products mainly for kids but when the trends. Preferences and taste of common man changed Britannia also added number of varieties in its products and they in real sense used the opportunity in making the products, Britannia widen its product line which follows the STP. They served the products for all the categories of people, now biscuit is not only meant for guest but also for the individuals by introducing tiger biscuits in small packs. Britannia holds about 46% of market share (Note1) by value in the fiercely competitive market. Targeting the key consumers and and changing the products with opportunity has worked for the Britannia and thats why they are the leader in the biscuit range. Note 1 Source http://www.superbrandsindia.com/images/superbrands_book_2004/britannia/index.htm Product Portfolio of Britannia Britannias entire product offering derive their premium qualities from the principles of health and taste. This key premise has led to the evolution of a lifetime menu where Britannia product exists for every stage in a persons life. The highest consumption group for biscuit are children; here Britannia offers milk bikis with all the goodness of milk required by younger kids. While the tiger brand is aimed for 7-14 year olds and provides them with the exuberant health required by winners of tomorrow. Treat a range of delicious cream biscuit- is meant as a treat for children during fun times. A particularly notable success has been little hearts, meant for teenagers and kids, which has completely dispelled an erstwhile industry axiom that this target group did not snack on sweet biscuit. Moving on other age groups, Britannia created 50-50 as a biscuit snack for young adults. The savory time pass brand is targeted at the same age group as well, Britannia mariegold, is regared as a tea-time offering, packed with wheat energy with health conscious urban adults. Good day, a cookie filled with rich ingredients is a healthy everyday treat for entire family. Britannia has a range of cakes and bread entrenched in the bakery segment. These products allow the consumers a better interactions with the brand and maintains continuity of the taste with health promise. In 2004, the company was extremely active in rolling out new products. It introduced its Little Hearts brand, which are referred to as melt in the mouth biscuits. Little Hearts Orange (orange-flavored biscuits) and Classic retail for 10 Rupees. Britannia also added Blackcurrant Treat, Jam Treat, Good Day Gingernut and Good Day Choco-Nut to its growing biscuit line in 2004. For the bread and dairy markets, Britannia introduced NutriChoice vitamin-enriched bread and Milk Man low-fat cheese slices. There were no new product launches in 2005, instead the company worked on strengthening existing brands. It released Premium Assorted Exotic Creme Biscuits, which feature varieties of some of the most popular biscuits Pure Magic Chocolate, Pure Magic Vanilla, Pure Magic Strawberry Vanilla and Jam Treat. The pack retails for 100 Rupees. The company also reformulated its 50:50 Maska Chaska biscuits. Sourcing Strategy: Outsourcing Vs Manufacturing With only four plants located in the country, its hard to imagine how Britannia Industries Ltd. became one of the largest food companies in India. But thanks to the companys system of outsourcing a significant quantity of products, Britannia is able to offer more than 13 brands and more than 200 SKUs for its customers in India and around the world. The companys plants are located in Indias four major metropolitan cities Kolkata in eastern India, Chennai in southern India and Delhi and Uttaranchal in northern India. Combined, these facilities employ more than 4,300 people and yet only make 30% of the companys products. Sixty-one other contracted factories produce the remaining 70% of Britannias product line. Its a distributed manufacturing strategy in Britannia Industries Limited designed to optimize the delivered cost to the consumer. Outsourcing manufacturing is a model used by many other companies in India, both in the consumer packaged and durable goods segment in such companies Britannia Industries Limited and Hindustan Unilever limited are effectively using this strategy. The 61 factories contracted to produce Britannia products do not produce any other products at their locations. Certain brands and product varieties are made at particular facilities. Even though the contracted facilities are not owned by Britannia, they are monitored by company representatives to ensure quality control. For example in the northern region of India there are eight manufacturing units including Britannia Industries limited New Delhi, where Britannia has outsourced its manufacturing. And for the quality control there is a Quality Assurance Team guided by Quality Assurance Manager Mr. Dev Raj Dabas. A brief introduction of these eight is given below: French Foods Faridabad Gokul Foods Kanpur RKM Foods Kandrori BIL New Delhi Delta Foods Biscuits Gaziabad Delta Foods Cake Gaziabad JB Managaram Gawalior Super Snacks Gaziabad Britannia generally launches products that offer the company good returns, supporting these through brand building and leveraging on its nationwide supply chain. Sales and Distribution of Britannia Britannia two different kinds of distribution networks one is for dairy products and other one is Bakery products. Here distribution network of bakery products has been discussed. In Bakery products Britannia applies two kind of distribution system. These are given below: Mass Distribution Selective Distribution 1. Mass Distribution Britannia use to produce general FMCG products which are in form of packaged food and which need not to have very special kind of distribution strategy. Like other FMCG companies Britannia also use mass distribution system. Since all almost all the products of Britannia are of low price, repeat purchase items, and does not require much of effort from customer side. So ultimately these products are sold on mass distribution basis. Mass Distribution Structure of Britannia for Bakery Products: CF Distributor 1 Retailers Consumers Distributor 2 Distributor 3 Factory There are four CF of Britannia in NCR region: Mudka Bahadurgarh Bakoli Gaziabad Kundali- Sonipat 49 distributors are working under these four CF. The distribution network of Britannias products from top to bottom is given below: First of all stock is sent to these CF, and then this stock is sent to the various distribution canters of Britannia. All of these distribution centers do not contain products of any other brand. Now this supply of stock is based on full e-network. This system has been provided a particular terminology i.e. UDAAN PACKAGE. In this system the accountant who is in distribution center submits an online order to the CF. Then in CF the order for a particular distribution center is automatically generated and further fulfills by CF. Britannia has established these CF at very appropriate locations. As soon as there is a demand generated in any distribution centre These CF are able to fulfill the demand within four to six hours. So it is clear that CF provides quick delivery to the distribution centre. But in order to meet this demand the CF also has to keep some inventory with it. Now if we talk according to the distribution point of view we will find that Distribution Centre has to also make some inventory in order to meet any kind of scarcity or instant demand. According to Mr. Randhir Kumar, (Territory Sales Incharge, Britannia Industries Limited), the distribution center has to maintain inventory of three days. Now the distribution of stock from the distributor to retailer can be further explained by taking a distributor Keshav Enterprises. Keshav Enterprises is the distributor near Kishan Garh Vasant Kunj; handles 850-1000 outlets. The area which a distributor covers is also very large. E.g. Keshav Enterprises handles Munirka, R.K. Puram, South Moti Bagh, Vasant Kunj, Sataya Niketan, Mahipal Pur, Kapashera Border, Bijwasan, Nangal Dairy and Vasant Vihar. There are 49 such distributors of Britannia in Delhi. Under this distributor five sales men work and they cover the entire area which is mentioned above. Here the distribution is again divided into two parts i.e. distribution for General Shops Key Account Outlets (KAT) 1). General Shops Distribution to general shops is done by two sales men. They cover 30 to 40 outlets every day. Now the number of these outlets is not content, it varies time by time as they are not very loyal to the company and also does not contribute to very prominent sale. 2). Key Account Outlets (KAT) These outlets are covered by two sales men and they take order from these outlets biweekly. These sales men visit twenty to twenty five outlets every day. These outlets are very much loyal to the company and provide prominent business to the company. So from the sales point of view these outlets are very important. Now the stock is moved from distributor to the retailers. For selling the stock on the retail outlets there are two processes: Order Booking Ready Stock 1). Order Booking There are separate sales teams who perform this task. For example one sales team has to go for order booking. In this process the salesman first go to shop to shop and book the orders from there. On the other day or some times on the same day the delivery van goes every where in order to fulfill the orders. Now due to this method distributor not only gains the sales as well as looses the sale. Order booking process is done in Britannia on Biweekly or Weekly basis. Some times Order Booking and Ready Stock both the task are performed by the same sales man. Benefits of Order Booking In this process the distributor always remains in better position to forecast the demand. As the sales man has already an order list. This helps not only to the distributors but also to the CF as well as finally to the factory in order to make more realistic demand. Since the sales man does not have to do more but to book the order, it enables the sales man to search out the new opportunities in the market. It helps not only to the company but also to the sales man as sales man gets special rewards from the company side. Since during this process the sales man gets extra time in which he/she gets enough time to interact with the retailer which is again very important. Actually the retailer does not want only profit but also a better respect and courtesy from the salesman. So in such situations if the retailer is getting good time with the salesman, surely he will be more loyal to the company. Also during this period the sales man could increase the visibility of its products in the shelves of the shop keeper. Drawbacks of Order Booking Along with all these benefits there are some drawbacks also involved in this advance booking process. Some times sales man takes orders from the shopkeeper and assures him that the order will be fulfilled on next day. But during this period the sales man of other company comes and provides the same product at some discounts or with some schemes in this condition the shopkeeper takes the stock from that sales man. 2). Ready Stock In this process the sales man carry the team along with him which contain a delivery van, a driver, and one or two helpers. The sales man takes order from the shops and also places the order at the spot. There are following benefits and drawbacks of this method. Almost thirty to forty outlets are visited by this way. Benefits of Ready Stock The retailer gets stock on the spot without any delay. The sales man does not give a chance to the retailer to switch any other brand. The defected stock is replaced on the spot. Drawbacks of Ready Stock The sales man does not get enough time; he simply dumps the stock and moves from one store to another store. Even then he does not cover many retailers, as the delivery process takes a lot of time. What amount of stock should be carried by the sales man is also can not be predicted. The sales man moves to pre decided path and could not find new shops, so the market penetration by the sales man is also very rare in this case. 2. Selective Distribution Selective distribution is done for premium products of Britannia. There are eight SKUs, for which Britannia uses selective distribution. These brands are: Chochlor Intoxication Almond Addiction Chocolus Addiction These products are very costly and lie between the prices ranges of Rs. 150 to Rs. 200. Now these products are not supplied by the distribution centre but directly from CF. These distributions are done through the Merchandiser Team. Merchandiser Team is elaborated in further pages. Merchandiser takes order from these exclusive shops and transfers this order to the CF. Now CF sends the stock and the billing is done by the respective distribution centre. Selective Distribution Structure of Britannia for Bakery Products Exclusive Retail Outlet Exclusive Retail Outlet Exclusive Retail Outlet Exclusive Retail Outlet CF CF Factory The Challenges To compete effectively, Britannia found that it was essential to get sales people out in front of customers yet this isolated them from their ordering systems. Managers wanted to enable remote working to allow more time to be spent with customers, while providing easier access to ordering and production management tools. The Solution Use of ERP based solution in Supply Chain It is recommended that Britannia implement mySAP ERP applications for the high performance and highly scalable IBM technologies. The mySAP ERP software enables full access to companys inventory, production planning, sales order systems accessed through a simple Web browser and SAP client. The Benefits: Britannia can expect to achieve around 30 per cent lower database administration costs, with better technical performance leading to increased productivity . Sales team can complete orders quickly without waiting to return to the office; Britannia can provide information on pricing of the existing product and stock-availability in real time; lower software license fees for remote systems and reduced administrative and maintenance workload means a significant reduction in TCO. The ERP functions from the perspective of supply chain optimization are shown in following flowchart. Overall process optimization Expense optimization Revenue and Profit optimization Logistics optimization Knowledge optimization ERP optimization at various stages of supply chain The business value of the ERP system includes: Streamlined supply chain and accurate information. Reduced supply chain costs. Increased sales through accurate product availability. The following figure highlights IT components in ERP, IT infrastructure and resources in SCM. The SCM planning is the input for ERP. Operating system Data warehouse Retail Link Data, account, analysis Forecast Inventory plan ERP SCM Manufacturing planning Feedback S E R V E R S Intelligent Systems Internet ERP, IT Infrastructure and resources in SCM Key Solution Components Industry: Foods Applications: mySAPà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ ERP ECC 6.0 Hardware: IBM System p5à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ 570, p5-520, IBM System Storage ® DS4300à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢, IBM TotalStorage ® 3580 tape drives Software: IBM AIX ® 5.3, IBM DB2 ®